Social Science 3: First Prelim Coverage Fact Sheets

BASIC CONCEPTS

Politics- is traditionally defined as the science and art of government (The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics, 199). It is the process of making government policies. It deals with public affairs, that is, the distribution of goods and services to satisfy the demands of the public. It is also concerned with conflicts and their resolutions. Conflicts are said to be ubiquitous in politics due to the competition for scarce resources. Politics is the art of managing these conflicts in order to preserve social order. It has an etymology from the Greek word “polis” which refers to the ancient city-states of which Athens and Sparta were the most prominent. The modern usage denotes a process in the political system in which the goals of that system are selected and ordered in terms of priority in the allocation of resources.

Governance- is the exercise of political, economic and administrative authority in the management of political affairs (NEDA, 1998). It is the process by which people collectively solve problems and meet social needs. It deals with the processes, institutions, mechanisms, and activities through which individuals and groups in the state articulate their interests, exercise their rights and obligations and resolve their conflicts. It can also be viewed as a process of steering the government towards its obligation to see to it that the basic services, peace and order, and needed goods are provided to the people (NEDA, 1998).

Types of Governance:

a.       Political Governance- refers to the formulation and implementation of policies by the government. It is the interplay of the 3 branches of government in which the legislative branch formulates policies, the executive branch implements policies, and the judicial branch adjudicates legal controversies.

b.      Economic Governance- the process of decision-making that affects domestic economic activities and the relationship between the domestic and international markets.

c.       Administrative Governance- the process of implementing policies through an efficient, independent and accountable bureaucracy.

d.      Ecological Governance- the use of science and technology and the mobilization of all stakeholders in the management of the environment.

Requirements of Good Governance

1.       Transparency- the extent to which the general public should be informed about government operations.

2.       Accountability- the extent that the government officials can be held responsible for their decisions and for the performance of their agencies.

3.       Participatory- refers to the extent that the general public including key stakeholders and marginalized groups (women, ethnic or religious minorities, etc.) are able to participate in and influence both the decision-making process and ongoing government operations.

a.       Electoral activity

b.      Lobbying

c.       Organizing

d.      Contacting

e.      Violence

4.       Legitimacy- the extent that the operation of the government is acceptable to the people.

5.       Efficiency and Effectiveness in the use of resources- Effectiveness is the extent in which the acts of government contribute to the performance of government function such as in the maintenance of peace and order, delivery of basic goods and services and maintenance of ecological balance. On the operations of government agencies, it refers to their ability to focus their functions and attain their goals and objectives.  Efficiency is the extent that the functions of the government are performed through established processes and within reasonable cost.

Other Concepts in the Study of Politics

Power- is the capacity of an actor to compel or influence other actors to alter their behavior or to do what they would not do otherwise.

Authority- refers to the formal or legal relationships between policymakers (political elite) and the citizens.

Influence- is a species of power but it may connote more than those instances where power and authority manifest themselves.

Legitimacy- is the extent to which the citizens regard the state and its institutions including its policies and programs as morally right and acceptable.

Attitude- is a learned predisposition towards political objects. This predisposition may be positively or negatively directed towards certain people, issues, activity, or institutions (Dahl, 1976).

                Components:

1.       Cognitive- the awareness or knowledge of an idea.

2.       Affective- consists of feelings or emotions which guide preferences whether we like or dislike something.

3.       Behavioral intent- the readiness to act which grows out from the evaluation of the potential consequences of a behavior.

Public Opinion- refers to the summation of the expressed or verbalized attitudes of individuals.

Perception- is the way how a political actor views his environment and the various stimuli within.

Values- are enduring beliefs that a specific end-state of existing order or mode of conduct is preferable to an opposite state.

Conflict- is a disharmony arising from stresses and strains due to some changes in the political environment.

Decision-making- (or policymaking) is the process by which authorized individuals or groups make decisions to allocate resources in the society through resolutions, laws, policies, programs, decrees, etc.

Groups- Those groups that emerge from the association of individuals with common interest serve as the vehicle through which they participate in politics.

The Concept of State and Government

State- is a community of persons more or less numerous occupying a definite portion of the territory completely free of external control and possessing an organized government to which a great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience (Garner, 2002). It possesses an inherent supreme power called sovereignty, which is shown in its ability to use force in advancing its interests like in maintaining its territorial integrity, ensuring the security of its people, enforcing its policies within its jurisdiction, and in pursuing its relations with other states.

Nation- is an ethnic concept, defined as a people, or an aggregation of men, existing in the form of an organized society, usually inhabiting a distinct portion of the earth, speaking the same language, doing the same customs, possessing historic continuity, and disguised from other like groups by their racial origin and characteristics, and generally but not necessarily, living under the same government and sovereignty.

4 Essential Elements of State

1.       People- refer to the inhabitants of the state.

2.       Territory- is the fixed portion on the surface of the Earth inhabited by the people of the State.

3.       Sovereignty- is the supreme power inherent in a State.

4.       Government- is the instrument that provides mechanisms in determining, formulating, and implementing the policies of the state. It is the essential instrument or machinery of the state that carries out its will, purposes and objectives. It is an institution by which society’s needs for social services are satisfied and by which conflicting interests are reconciled (Ayson, et. al., 2000).

Administration- refers to the groups of persons headed by the President in whose hands the reins of government are held for the time being. It is the one the runs the government at a given period of time.

Functions of a Government

1.       Constituent Functions- are basic functions of the government that must be performed. Their performance is the minimum requirement for an orderly existence. These functions provide the reason for the existence of the government.

2.       Ministrant Functions- are those undertaken to advance the general interests of society, such as public works and public charity.

Forms of Government (as classified into various forms depending on the criteria used

a.      Accdg. to the no. of people who rule or participate in the exercise of sovereignty

1.       Monarchy- a government in which the supreme and final authority is in the hands of a single person. This is a form of government where the ruler is a monarch who comes from a royal family.

2.       Oligarchy- a government by the minority in the society or the government of the few.

                                                   i.      Aristocracy- government by the elite of the society who has high social status which is usually inherited.

                                                 ii.      Plutocracy- the government by the few who are rich.

                                                iii.      Theocracy- the government by the few religious elite.

3.       Democracy- government by the people.

                                                   i.      Direct (Participative) Democracy- the will of the masses is formulated directly in a mass meeting or primary assembly rather than through representatives.

                                                 ii.      Representative Democracy- the will of the State is formulated and expressed through a relatively small body of persons chosen by the people to act as their representative such as the Congress or the parliament.

b.      Accdg. to the relationship between the national and local governments

4.       Federal- a government where there is a division of governmental powers between the national government and the local government or constituent units and such division of powers are specified in the constitution. In this form, the local government units are autonomous from the national government; they have inherent powers, which the national government cannot withdraw or take away from them.

5.       Unitary- the central or national government is supreme, possessing complete government power. The powers possessed by the local government units are delegated from the national government; hence, they can be withdrawn by the national government anytime. Any autonomy granted to the local government units is temporary, and is granted through the special laws and their scope and operation are subject to the definition by the central government.

c.       Accdg. to the status (either civilian or military) of those who hold the rein of govt.

6.       Civil government- ruled by a civilian authority; usually follows the dismantling of a military government.

7.       Military government- one established and administered by a belligerent in the territory of an enemy it administers. It may also happen in short periods when military officers seize the reign of government and imposes martial rule.

d.      Accdg. to the relationship between the executive and the legislature.

8.       Parliamentary government- one in which the executive is a member of the legislature and is subject to its control. It is one in which the state confers upon the legislature the complete control of the administration of the law.

9.       Presidential government- the executive is independent of the legislature both in tenure and prerogative. In this form, there is separation of executive and legislative power and that the legislature cannot interfere into the functions of chief executive who is called president.

e.       Other forms.

10.   Despotic government- one in which the powers of those who rule are not limited by any constitutional understanding or agreement with the people. It is also called authoritarian government.

11.   Totalitarian government- an extreme form of an authoritarian government where there is an official ideology in which members of the society must adhere to and which covers all aspects of life in the society. It exercises maximum censorship upon the lives of its citizens.

12.   Republican government- a government which derives all its powers directly or indirectly from the great body of people and is administered by representatives holding their offices for a limited period, or during good behavior.

13.   Constitutional government- the structures of the government and the powers as well as the manner they are exercised by those who hold office are defined by the constitution. Also, the procedure for the selection of government officials is clearly specified in the constitution.

14.   De jure government- a government that is founded upon a constitution. It operates within the well-defined procedures established through constitution, traditions, and laws. It enjoys legitimacy and the habitual obedience of its people.

15.   De facto government- a government that has no constitutional basis. It exists because it has the effective control of governmental powers. It operates against the rightful authority of the duly constituted government. It commands the obedience of its people through force.

16.   Revolutionary government- a government established either by force or by peaceful means but not in accordance with the procedure established by the constitution. It is usually installed for the purpose of introducing fundamental changes in the policies of the state and in order to cope up with sweeping changes that those in power would like to introduce.

Principles Governing the Operation of Governmental Powers

a.       Separation of Powers- is a principle that confines legislative powers to the legislature, the executive powers to the executive department and the judicial powers to the judiciary. Under this principle, the officers entrusted with the exercise of each power are not permitted to encroach upon the powers confined to the others. The main objective of the separation of powers is to prevent the accumulation of powers in one department of the government.

b.      System of Check and Balance- under this principle, one department is given the authority to check the possible excesses of the other departments so that they will only exercise the powers entrusted to them in a manner allowed by law.

c.       Blending of Powers- there are instances when the different branches of the government participate in performing a function. While a certain function may properly belong to a particular department, it cannot be completed without the participation of the other departments.

Fundamental Powers of the State

a.       Police Power- is the power of promoting the public welfare by restraining and regulating the use of liberty and property. It regulates not only property but more importantly, the liberty of private persons, and virtually all the people. Among the three inherent powers of the state, it is the most pervasive and most extensive in its effects. It may be exercised as long as the activity or the property sought to be regulated has some relevance to the public welfare. This power may not be bargained away though the medium of a contract or even a treaty, owing to the need to protect society from the inordinate assertion of individual liberty. The impairment clause must yield to the police power whenever the contract deals with a subject affecting the pubic welfare.

b.      Power of Eminent Domain- enables the State to acquire private property upon payment of just compensation for some intended public use.  Also called the power of expropriation, this power is described as the “highest and most exact idea of property remaining in the government” that may be acquired for some public purpose through a method “in the nature of a compulsory sale to the State”. It is lodged primarily in the national legislature, but its exercise may be validly delegated to other governmental entities and, in fact, even to private corporations, serving essential public needs or operating public utilities.

c.       Power of Taxation- the State is able to demand from the members of society their proportionate share or contribution in the maintenance of the government. Taxes are enforced proportional contributions from persons and property, levied by the State by virtue of its sovereignty, for the support of the government and for public goods and services, thus, it is referred to as the “lifeblood of the nation”. Aside from being an inherent power, taxation is also a legislative power, being exercised by the legislature through the enactment of statutes. It is also designed to equitably distribute wealth, to protect new industries, or to uplift social conditions. Generally, it is a process by which the political system extracts resources in any form for common purposes.

Source: Aguja et. al., A Course Guide in Philippine Politics and Governance, 2010

Fact sheets prepared by: Glen Jornales