BASIC CONCEPTS
Politics- is traditionally defined as the science and art of government (The
Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics, 199). It is the process of making
government policies. It deals with public affairs, that is, the distribution of
goods and services to satisfy the demands of the public. It is also concerned
with conflicts and their resolutions. Conflicts are said to be ubiquitous in
politics due to the competition for scarce resources. Politics is the art of
managing these conflicts in order to preserve social order. It has an etymology
from the Greek word “polis” which refers to the ancient city-states of which
Athens and Sparta were the most prominent. The modern usage denotes a process in
the political system in which the goals of that system are selected and ordered
in terms of priority in the allocation of resources.
Governance- is the exercise of political, economic and administrative
authority in the management of political affairs (NEDA, 1998). It is the
process by which people collectively solve problems and meet social needs. It
deals with the processes, institutions, mechanisms, and activities through
which individuals and groups in the state articulate their interests, exercise
their rights and obligations and resolve their conflicts. It can also be viewed
as a process of steering the government towards its obligation to see to it
that the basic services, peace and order, and needed goods are provided to the
people (NEDA, 1998).
Types of Governance:
a.
Political Governance- refers to the
formulation and implementation of policies by the government. It is the
interplay of the 3 branches of government in which the legislative branch
formulates policies, the executive branch implements policies, and the judicial
branch adjudicates legal controversies.
b.
Economic Governance- the process of
decision-making that affects domestic economic activities and the relationship
between the domestic and international markets.
c.
Administrative Governance- the
process of implementing policies through an efficient, independent and
accountable bureaucracy.
d.
Ecological Governance- the use of
science and technology and the mobilization of all stakeholders in the
management of the environment.
Requirements of Good Governance
1.
Transparency- the extent to which the
general public should be informed about government operations.
2.
Accountability- the extent that the
government officials can be held responsible for their decisions and for the
performance of their agencies.
3.
Participatory- refers to the extent that
the general public including key stakeholders and marginalized groups (women,
ethnic or religious minorities, etc.) are able to participate in and influence
both the decision-making process and ongoing government operations.
a.
Electoral activity
b.
Lobbying
c.
Organizing
d.
Contacting
e.
Violence
4.
Legitimacy- the extent that the
operation of the government is acceptable to the people.
5.
Efficiency and Effectiveness in the use of resources- Effectiveness is the
extent in which the acts of government contribute to the performance of
government function such as in the maintenance of peace and order, delivery of
basic goods and services and maintenance of ecological balance. On the
operations of government agencies, it refers to their ability to focus their
functions and attain their goals and objectives. Efficiency
is the extent that the functions of the government are performed through
established processes and within reasonable cost.
Other Concepts in the Study of Politics
Power- is the capacity of an actor to compel or influence other actors to
alter their behavior or to do what they would not do otherwise.
Authority- refers to the formal or legal relationships between policymakers
(political elite) and the citizens.
Influence- is a species of power but it may connote more than those instances
where power and authority manifest themselves.
Legitimacy- is the extent to which the citizens regard the state and its
institutions including its policies and programs as morally right and
acceptable.
Attitude- is a learned predisposition towards political objects. This
predisposition may be positively or negatively directed towards certain people,
issues, activity, or institutions (Dahl, 1976).
Components:
1.
Cognitive- the awareness or
knowledge of an idea.
2.
Affective- consists of feelings or
emotions which guide preferences whether we like or dislike something.
3.
Behavioral intent- the readiness to
act which grows out from the evaluation of the potential consequences of a
behavior.
Public
Opinion- refers to the summation of the expressed
or verbalized attitudes of individuals.
Perception- is the way how a political actor views his environment and the
various stimuli within.
Values- are enduring beliefs that a specific end-state of existing order
or mode of conduct is preferable to an opposite state.
Conflict- is a disharmony arising from stresses and strains due to some
changes in the political environment.
Decision-making- (or policymaking) is the process by which authorized individuals
or groups make decisions to allocate resources in the society through
resolutions, laws, policies, programs, decrees, etc.
Groups- Those groups that emerge from the association of individuals with
common interest serve as the vehicle through which they participate in
politics.
The Concept of State and Government
State- is a community of persons more or less numerous occupying a
definite portion of the territory completely free of external control and
possessing an organized government to which a great body of inhabitants render
habitual obedience (Garner, 2002). It possesses an inherent supreme power
called sovereignty, which is shown in its ability to use force in advancing its
interests like in maintaining its territorial integrity, ensuring the security
of its people, enforcing its policies within its jurisdiction, and in pursuing
its relations with other states.
Nation- is an ethnic concept, defined as a people, or an aggregation of
men, existing in the form of an organized society, usually inhabiting a
distinct portion of the earth, speaking the same language, doing the same
customs, possessing historic continuity, and disguised from other like groups
by their racial origin and characteristics, and generally but not necessarily,
living under the same government and sovereignty.
4
Essential Elements of State
1.
People- refer to the inhabitants of the
state.
2.
Territory- is the fixed portion on the
surface of the Earth inhabited by the people of the State.
3.
Sovereignty- is the supreme power
inherent in a State.
4.
Government- is the instrument that
provides mechanisms in determining, formulating, and implementing the policies
of the state. It is the essential instrument or machinery of the state that
carries out its will, purposes and objectives. It is an institution by which
society’s needs for social services are satisfied and by which conflicting
interests are reconciled (Ayson, et. al., 2000).
Administration- refers to the groups of persons headed by the President in whose
hands the reins of government are held for the time being. It is the one the
runs the government at a given period of time.
Functions of a Government
1.
Constituent Functions- are
basic functions of the government that must be performed. Their performance is
the minimum requirement for an orderly existence. These functions provide the
reason for the existence of the government.
2.
Ministrant Functions- are those
undertaken to advance the general interests of society, such as public works
and public charity.
Forms
of Government (as classified into various forms depending on the criteria used
a. Accdg. to the no. of people
who rule or participate in the exercise of sovereignty
1.
Monarchy- a government in which the supreme and final authority is in the
hands of a single person. This is a form of government where the ruler is a
monarch who comes from a royal family.
2.
Oligarchy- a government by the minority in the society or the government of
the few.
i.
Aristocracy- government by the
elite of the society who has high social status which is usually inherited.
ii.
Plutocracy- the government by
the few who are rich.
iii.
Theocracy- the government by
the few religious elite.
3.
Democracy- government by the people.
i.
Direct (Participative)
Democracy- the will of the masses is formulated directly in a mass meeting or
primary assembly rather than through representatives.
ii.
Representative Democracy- the
will of the State is formulated and expressed through a relatively small body
of persons chosen by the people to act as their representative such as the
Congress or the parliament.
b. Accdg. to the relationship
between the national and local governments
4.
Federal- a government where there is a division of governmental powers
between the national government and the local government or constituent units
and such division of powers are specified in the constitution. In this form,
the local government units are autonomous from the national government; they
have inherent powers, which the national government cannot withdraw or take
away from them.
5.
Unitary- the central or national government is supreme, possessing complete
government power. The powers possessed by the local government units are
delegated from the national government; hence, they can be withdrawn by the
national government anytime. Any autonomy granted to the local government units
is temporary, and is granted through the special laws and their scope and
operation are subject to the definition by the central government.
c. Accdg. to the status
(either civilian or military) of those who hold the rein of govt.
6.
Civil government- ruled by a civilian authority; usually follows the dismantling of
a military government.
7.
Military government- one established and administered by a belligerent in the territory
of an enemy it administers. It may also happen in short periods when military
officers seize the reign of government and imposes martial rule.
d. Accdg. to the relationship
between the executive and the legislature.
8.
Parliamentary government- one in which the executive is a member of the legislature and is
subject to its control. It is one in which the state confers upon the
legislature the complete control of the administration of the law.
9.
Presidential government- the executive is independent of the legislature both in tenure and
prerogative. In this form, there is separation of executive and legislative
power and that the legislature cannot interfere into the functions of chief
executive who is called president.
e. Other forms.
10.
Despotic government- one in which the powers of those who rule are not limited by any
constitutional understanding or agreement with the people. It is also called
authoritarian government.
11.
Totalitarian government- an extreme form of an authoritarian government where there is an
official ideology in which members of the society must adhere to and which
covers all aspects of life in the society. It exercises maximum censorship upon
the lives of its citizens.
12.
Republican government- a government which derives all its powers directly or indirectly
from the great body of people and is administered by representatives holding
their offices for a limited period, or during good behavior.
13.
Constitutional government- the structures of the government and the powers as well as the
manner they are exercised by those who hold office are defined by the
constitution. Also, the procedure for the selection of government officials is
clearly specified in the constitution.
14.
De jure government- a government that is founded upon a constitution. It operates
within the well-defined procedures established through constitution,
traditions, and laws. It enjoys legitimacy and the habitual obedience of its
people.
15.
De facto government- a government that has no constitutional basis. It exists because
it has the effective control of governmental powers. It operates against the
rightful authority of the duly constituted government. It commands the
obedience of its people through force.
16.
Revolutionary government- a government established either by force or by peaceful means but
not in accordance with the procedure established by the constitution. It is
usually installed for the purpose of introducing fundamental changes in the
policies of the state and in order to cope up with sweeping changes that those
in power would like to introduce.
Principles Governing the Operation of Governmental
Powers
a.
Separation of Powers- is a principle that confines legislative powers to the
legislature, the executive powers to the executive department and the judicial
powers to the judiciary. Under this principle, the officers entrusted with the
exercise of each power are not permitted to encroach upon the powers confined
to the others. The main objective of the separation of powers is to prevent the
accumulation of powers in one department of the government.
b.
System of Check and Balance- under this principle, one department is given the authority to
check the possible excesses of the other departments so that they will only
exercise the powers entrusted to them in a manner allowed by law.
c.
Blending of Powers- there are instances when the different branches of the government
participate in performing a function. While a certain function may properly
belong to a particular department, it cannot be completed without the
participation of the other departments.
Fundamental Powers of the State
a.
Police Power- is the power of promoting the public welfare by restraining and
regulating the use of liberty and property. It regulates not only property but
more importantly, the liberty of private persons, and virtually all the people.
Among the three inherent powers of the state, it is the most pervasive and most
extensive in its effects. It may be exercised as long as the activity or the
property sought to be regulated has some relevance to the public welfare. This power
may not be bargained away though the medium of a contract or even a treaty,
owing to the need to protect society from the inordinate assertion of
individual liberty. The impairment clause must yield to the police power
whenever the contract deals with a subject affecting the pubic welfare.
b.
Power of Eminent Domain- enables the State to acquire private property upon payment of just
compensation for some intended public use.
Also called the power of expropriation, this power is described as the
“highest and most exact idea of property remaining in the government” that may
be acquired for some public purpose through a method “in the nature of a
compulsory sale to the State”. It is lodged primarily in the national
legislature, but its exercise may be validly delegated to other governmental
entities and, in fact, even to private corporations, serving essential public
needs or operating public utilities.
c.
Power of Taxation- the State is able to demand from the members of society their
proportionate share or contribution in the maintenance of the government. Taxes are enforced proportional
contributions from persons and property, levied by the State by virtue of its
sovereignty, for the support of the government and for public goods and
services, thus, it is referred to as the “lifeblood of the nation”. Aside from
being an inherent power, taxation is also a legislative power, being exercised
by the legislature through the enactment of statutes. It is also designed to
equitably distribute wealth, to protect new industries, or to uplift social
conditions. Generally, it is a process by which the political system extracts
resources in any form for common purposes.
Source: Aguja et. al., A Course
Guide in Philippine Politics and Governance, 2010
Fact sheets prepared by: Glen Jornales
Remember when we first met? We don't know anything about each other yet, except for our classmates and former co-officers (Mitch and me, Zam and Precious, Zam and me).
